Unlike in most economies, employment doesn’t translate into protection from intimate partner violence for women in India. Perversely, they suffer a higher risk especially if they earn more.

The immense potential of India’s large population, particularly women, remains largely underutilised in its rapidly growing economy. Female labour force participation remains nearly 20 percentage points lower than in countries like US and China. One significant barrier women face is ironically at home — the high prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV). IPV violates basic human rights and undermines their economic participation, reduces productivity in the economy, and negatively impacts future generations when children witness violence at home.

According to the latest National Family and Health Survey (NFHS-5) covering nearly 235k women respondents, one in three (31.8%) had experienced some form of violence from their husband or intimate partner in 2019-21. This rate is comparable to Tajikistan (30.8%), Mozambique (32.7%), and Pakistan (33.5%), and is significantly higher than in Philippines and Maldives (less than 18%). Physical violence alone in India was 28.2%.

Despite the enactment of Protection of Women against Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA 2005), deficiencies in implementation of the Act failed to materially reduce IPV incidence. Lifetime IPV incidence decreased by less than two percentage points during 2015-2021.

Equally concerning is the low rate of reporting among IPV victims. National Crime Records Bureau reveals a glaring mismatch between the reported incidence of IPV in surveys and the number of reported cases of domestic violence. Between 2015 and 2019, the crime rate for cases registered under PWDVA stagnated at just 0.1 per lakh population, and reports of “cruelty by husband or relatives” remained below 20 per lakh population. Survey data paints a similar picture.

NFHS-5 indicates that out of all victims of physical or sexual IPV, only about 1% sought help through formal channels such as police, doctors, lawyers, or social workers in the 2019-21 period. Cases of abuse of existing laws by women also need to be addressed, but their prevalence pales compared to unreported IPV against women.

Emancipation of women hasn’t kept pace with the economic advancement of India. In fact, some of the high-growth states like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are among the worst offenders. Cultural factors play a big role in India, as many studies have indicated. The question Monique Newiak, Navya Srivastava and I examined in a recent paper is how such cultural factors interact with individual characteristics.

One key finding is that employed women remain at a higher risk of violence from their partners, especially if they earn more than their partners. This finding contrasts sharply with the experience in other countries where economic independence of women is viewed as a driving force in reducing IPV.

But there are mitigating factors. We find that the risk of violence is lower when the husband is more educated; when reporting by victims is more common; or societal acceptance of IPV is lower. At the state level, the presence of more women leaders, better reporting infra for victims, and higher charge-sheeting rates matter.

Focusing exclusively on economic independence of women is highly unlikely to materially reduce IPV in India, because social empowerment is also needed that requires challenging patriarchal norms. Violence is often normalised by the victim herself. The share of women who justify wife-beating is a mind-boggling 41%, even higher than those of men. What are some ways in which a society can break the shackles of prevalent cultural norms?

As a starter, signals from leadership matter. During his first Independence Day Speech in 2014, PM urged every parent to treat sons and daughters as equals during their formative years and reinforced the message in 2022 — to “get rid of everything in our behaviour, culture and everyday life that humiliates and demeans women”. Such messages must get more traction from media, and state and local leaders. But as recent elections campaigns in Delhi revealed, local politicians continue to use offensive remarks against women politicians.

Given the enormous cost of domestic violence for society and the economy, every Indian citizen is a stakeholder. In that regard, there are several steps that can be taken by different stakeholders.

First, schools and colleges should introduce mandatory courses on gender equality, as part of the larger goal of embracing diversity. Second, civil society organisations should launch systematic campaigns in every community. Third, all legal rights should be gender-equitable — women in India currently enjoy only 60% of the legal rights afforded to men. Fourth, the capacity of local institutions — such as judiciary, police stations, and support centres — needs overhauling. Finally, the victims themselves must rise against atrocities and find their voice. This can only happen if we prioritise the safety and dignity of every woman — not just in policy, but in practice. Only then can India move towards becoming an inclusive and developed economy.

The writer is professor, National Council of Applied Economic Research. Views are personal.