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Water must be treated as a finite economic resource, not a limitless political entitlement. This requires tough reforms.

Water underpins nearly every aspect of human well-being, from food security and sanitation to clean energy and public health. Yet, as cities expand, industries grow, and agriculture continues to dominate water use, we are confronting a sobering reality. In many parts of the world, water demand now exceeds what nature can sustainably supply. In India, farming remains the largest consumer, but domestic and industrial use is rising fast. Although India supports nearly 18 per cent of the global population, it possesses only 4 per cent of the world’s freshwater resources. A significant portion of this limited supply, ranging from 78 to 90 per cent, depending on the source, is consumed by agriculture alone. The result is a widening gap between what we need and what we have.

India’s emergence as a global agricultural leader is undeniable. It is the world’s largest producer of milk and spices, and the second-largest producer of fruits, vegetables, and fish. But this success hides a deeper crisis: Our water resources are being depleted faster than they can be replenished.

Over 80 per cent of India’s freshwater withdrawals go to agriculture, much of it lost to inefficient and unsustainable use. In Punjab, groundwater levels are falling by more than one metre every year, driven by the expansion of paddy cultivation and free electricity. According to the Central Ground Water Board, 78 per cent of Punjab’s administrative blocks are now over-exploited, up from 50 per cent in 2004. India is, quite literally, eating its way into a groundwater emergency.

What makes this worse is that our input-intensive, water-thirsty model isn’t even delivering on its core promise, that is, nutrition. Despite achieving food self-sufficiency, nutrition outcomes remain poor. NFHS-5 data show that 35.5 per cent of children under five are stunted, 32.1 per cent are underweight, and 16.6 per cent of the population remains undernourished. This mismatch between food security and nutritional security reflects a deeper flaw: Our incentives prioritise calorie-rich crops like rice and wheat, backed by water subsidies, at the cost of more nutritious, climate-resilient alternatives.

Irrigation, often seen as part of the problem, can also be part of the solution, if managed right. Beyond boosting yields, smart irrigation allows diversification into pulses, vegetables, and oilseeds, which improves household nutrition. It ensures fodder for livestock, raises rural incomes, and reduces distress migration. If used wisely, irrigation can help India grow not just more food, but better food.

The roots of the imbalance lie in flawed policy choices. In Punjab, the Green Revolution displaced traditional crops with paddy, and free electricity drove indiscriminate use of deep tubewells. In Maharashtra, sugarcane, grown on just 4 per cent of agricultural land, uses over 70 per cent of the state’s irrigation water. The impact is especially severe in drought-prone districts like Solapur. Gujarat, however, offers a model of reform. The Jyotigram Yojana, launched in the early 2000s, separated agricultural and domestic power feeders and introduced metered irrigation supply. The result — a 20 per cent drop in groundwater extraction and wider adoption of micro-irrigation in water-scarce regions like Saurashtra and Kutch.

A two-pronged approach

India needs a two-pronged approach: Increase water availability in underused regions like eastern India, and sharply reduce demand in over-extracted zones, especially the northwest.

First, we must rethink incentives. Minimum support prices (MSPs) should be aligned with agro-ecological realities. Supporting millets, pulses, and oilseeds through procurement in rainfed areas can align sustainability with dietary diversity. The 2023 declaration of the International Year of Millets was a welcome step, but it must be backed by consistent fiscal support, market access, and consumer awareness.

Second, we need smarter pricing of water and electricity. Though politically difficult, pilot projects suggest farmers do respond to price signals if better options are available. In Andhra Pradesh, prepaid smart meters on pumps led to a 15 per cent drop in electricity use and greater adoption of drip systems. When paired with efficient technology, pricing can nudge behaviour without coercion.

Third, India must scale up micro-irrigation. Despite 74 million hectares under irrigation, only 12 per cent is covered by drip and sprinkler systems. These can save 30 to 70 per cent of water depending on the crop and terrain. The main barriers, high upfront costs and limited awareness, can be overcome with public-private models, equipment leasing, and targeted subsidies for small and marginal farmers.

Fourth, and perhaps most crucial, is investing in farmer-led water literacy. Reforms will fail unless farmers change how they perceive and value water. Many still equate abundance with security, unaware that overuse today threatens tomorrow’s resilience. Community-led initiatives like water user associations, participatory irrigation management, and groundwater audits, as in Maharashtra’s Jalyukta Shivar Abhiyan, can embed conservation into daily practice and foster collective action.

India cannot resolve its food challenge without fixing how it uses water. Water must be treated as a finite economic resource, not a limitless political entitlement. This requires tough but essential reforms — rethinking subsidies, realigning procurement, pricing inputs rationally, and building trust with farmers.

In an era of rising climate uncertainty, India must shift from growing crops based on political arithmetic to those based on hydrological logic and nutritional need.

The writers are associated with the National Council of Applied Economic Research. Views are personal

Whether it be a scorching summer vacation or puja holidays, a cozy winter getaway, or just a spontaneous weekend escape—one destination always finds its way to the top of every Bengalis travel wishlist: Puri.

For generations, Bengalis have shared an unshakable bond with Odisha whether it’s for this coastal gem or because of the DhauliGirihills of the Eastern Ghats; unique for their geological panorama. With the rhythm of crashing waves, the Irrawaddy dolphins, or Konark’sSun temple,a trip to Puri is something deeper, more nostalgic, and almost spiritual. What truly anchors this enduring affection?

It’s the majestic ‘Jagannath Temple’, an eternal sentinel of devotion since the 11th century. More than just stone and sanctity, it breathes history, radiates faith, and perceiveshomecoming. Here, the timeless rituals melt into the salty breeze, and each step through its sacred corridors feels like a return to something soulfully familiar. For centuries, poets like Bhakti Charan Das and Krishnadasa poured their love into hymns that echoed with longing and reverence. Even Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the luminous torchbearer of Bengal’s Gauriya Vaishnava tradition, chose this holy place as his final refuge, his spirit forever entwined with the deity he adored. Now, while we bask in the pathological pull of Puri, let us zoom into Puri bylooking through an economic lens. Odisha enjoys a striking 13 per cent of its state GDP coming from tourism alone indicating how vital this sector is to its economic pulse.And guess who tops the chart when it comes to footfalls in Odisha?

No surprises – West Bengal. Around 14-15 per cent of Odisha’s total tourist inflow hails from Bengal, making it not just a neighbour, but a consistently promising visitor. But what if the tables turn, does Odisha return a fitting feedback by making Bengal its top tourist pick? While data is sparse on exact reciprocal numbers, states like Odisha, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh do pop up as Bengal’s frequent footfall friends – adding a decent slice to its tourist pie. But the real twist in this tale is where it gets spicy. Bengal’s “Imitation Strategy” – the replica of the Jagannath Dham (Temple) in Digha, already a seaside sweetheart for tourists – is now more than an architectural homage. It’s a strategic tourism chess move.

With tourist magnets like Mandarmani, Tajpur, Bakkhali, and Henry Island already in the spotlight, adding a spiritual dimension was like playing the ace. And the numbers speak volumes: within just 15 days of the inauguration, over 2 million people visited the Bengal Jagannath Dham! Is this a short-lived sparkle or the beginning of a long-term tourism shift? Will Puri face a “tourist deficit” as visitors now get their beach-and-blessing combo right there in West Bengal? Now let’s stretch this tug-oftourism along the coastlines of the Bay of Bengal, where strategy is played not on headlines but on historical footprints, emotional recall, and a little nudge from the Game Theory. West Bengal has already made its opening move-a bold first-mover strategy with the Digha Jagannath Dham. This masterstroke sets the tone of the Game. But thencomes the big question: what does Odisha do next?If Odisha opts to collaborate with West Bengal, as illustrated in the first column of the hypothetical payoff matrix (see chart), the two states could jointly launch a “Coastal Inter-State Tourism Circuit.” This initiative would invite global visitors to explore their shared scenic and cultural heritage, capitalizing on economies of scale and fostering mutual economic growth.

Conversely, if Odisha chooses to compete with West Bengal, as represented in the second column of the matrix, it may attempt to construct replicas of Kolkata’s Victoria Memorial or Belur Math, or maybe launch a Digha-style beach carnival in Chandrabhaga or a river cruise withinBhitarkanika mangrove forest as an alternative to Bengal’s Sundarbans,to offset the potential loss of visitors to the Jagannath Temple in Digha.These strategic decisions are likely to trigger significant ripple effects in the regional tourism landscape. Analysis of the payoff matrix reveals that West Bengal’s optimal strategy is to cooperate, regardless of Odisha’s choice. Should Odisha choose to cooperate (first column), West Bengal has no incentive to act otherwise.

Even if Odisha decides to compete (second column), cooperation remains West Bengal’s best response. With this first-mover advantage, West Bengal is positioned to set the strategic tone, establish the framework for collaboration, and shape the broader narrative by consistently choosing cooperationirrespective of Odisha’s stance.This is where strategy meets synergy, and both enjoy steady and long-term tourism growth (Payoff: 10-10). This is because tourism isn’t a one-shot affair. Pilgrims don’t come once and forget. They visit season after season, year after year. States aren’t just hustling for headcounts – they’re building brands, loyalty loops, and that sweet spot where a visitor’s wonderful memoriesmeetthe state’s earnings from tourism. The Jagannath Dham in Digha offers local budget travellers a spiritual-plus-sea shore combo.

On the other hand, Puri’s Jagannath Temple is an emotion, legacy, and divinity wrapped in stone. It’s not just a monument, it’s an experience passed down through generations. And there, the feedback loop kicks in. A good experience in Puri doesn’t just end in Odisha – it reverberates through reels, reviews, and recommendations, and is now eventually to be evaluated in comparison to whatDigha has to offer.And that’s where the real magic brews. Think of Europe – do Italy, Spain, and France try to out-Eiffel each other? No. They co-create a pan-European charm, where each destination complements, not competes. Imagine a Bengal-Odisha Coastal Corridor, starting with spiritual trails from Puri, beachy escapes in Digha, crab curry in Tajpur, coconut-water sunsets in Mandarmani, and ending with an eco-safari cruise to the Sundarbans. Why settle for standalonepopularity when there is immense potentialfor a seamless East Coast symphony? In this coastal chessboard, is it not wiser for both states not to outdo each other but to move smart with long-term visions of collaboration, and create win-win scenarios?

The writers are, respectively, a Fellow and a Research Associate at the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), New Delhi. Views are personal.

Irrigation investments yield the best outcomes when paired with timely access to quality seeds, fertilisers, credit, and extension advice.

n India’s agrarian landscape, the relationship between irrigation and cropping decisions has long been treated as linear, where expansion of irrigation infrastructure is expected to lead to changes in cropping patterns, particularly a shift toward more water-intensive and high-value crops. However, empirical evidence from the past decade suggests that this assumption does not hold uniformly. A closer analysis of national agricultural data from 2011-12 to 2022-23 reveals a more dynamic and contemporaneous relationship between irrigation and sowing decisions, with important implications for agricultural policy.

During this 11-year period, India saw a significant increase in both the gross irrigated area (GIA) and gross sown area (GSA). The GIA rose from 91.8 million hectares in 2011-12 to 122.3 million hectares by 2022-23. At the same time, the GSA grew from 195.8 to 219.4 million hectares. This expansion translated into a steady increase in the share of sown area under irrigation — from 46.9% to 55.8%. Crop yields also rose considerably, from 841 kg per acre in 2011-12 to 1,009 kg per acre in 2022-23, indicating an average annual growth rate of 1.67%. These changes suggest not only a quantitative expansion of irrigation but also its qualitative impact in enhancing land productivity.

An analysis of India’s data on total area under irrigation and GSA shows a strong link between the two. When irrigation coverage expanded, sowing activity also increased — especially when both happened in the same year. The connection weakened when there was a time gap between the two; in fact, a two-year lag in irrigation led to a negative relationship. This suggests that farmers typically decide on irrigation and cropping together, based on immediate conditions like rainfall, market prices, input availability, and policy cues — rather than following a fixed step-by-step process.

These findings challenge conventional wisdom in irrigation planning, where infrastructure projects are designed under the assumption that farmers will adapt their cropping choices once assured water becomes available. In practice, farmers make sowing decisions based on the water they can access now — not promises of supply two years into the future. This mismatch can result in underutilised irrigation assets and poor returns on public investment.

For irrigation policy to be effective, it must become more adaptive and time-sensitive. This means moving away from the dominant model of long-gestation, infrastructure-heavy investments that are disconnected from seasonal realities. Instead, irrigation planning and execution must be aligned with sowing calendars and agricultural time frames. Key interventions such as canal desilting, pump set repairs, and water release schedules should be implemented in tune with cropping windows.

Such agility requires institutional reforms. Decentralised governance should be at the heart of this shift. Local bodies, including water user associations and panchayati raj institutions, must be empowered with both autonomy and financial resources to deliver irrigation services suited to their regions. These bodies are best positioned to understand local agro-climatic nuances, cropping preferences, and water availability. A flexible, bottom-up approach will be more efficient and equitable than centrally managed, one-size-fits-all schemes.

Irrigation responsiveness also hinges on data. Real-time decision-making should be supported through better use of technology and information systems. Weather forecasts, soil moisture data, and remote sensing imagery can help predict water demand more accurately and guide allocation decisions. Digital platforms should be used to communicate timely advisories to farmers — ensuring they have the information to coordinate irrigation with other inputs.

Equally critical is input convergence. Farmers typically respond to an ecosystem of support, not just water access. Irrigation investments yield the best outcomes when paired with timely access to quality seeds, fertilisers, credit, and extension advice. Without this integration, irrigation expansion benefits are often muted.

Sustainability must remain a guiding principle in this transformation. While the data shows clear gains in irrigated area and yield, this expansion also places growing pressure on India’s water resources — particularly groundwater, which accounts for nearly two-thirds of total irrigation. The adoption of water-efficient technologies such as drip and sprinkler systems must be scaled up, particularly in water-stressed states. Policymakers should also use behavioural nudges — such as community water budgeting, transparent water accounting, and incentive-based water pricing — to encourage sustainable use.

The issue of cropping choices is also central to water sustainability. Continued reliance on water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane is ecologically costly. Encouraging a shift toward less water-consuming and more climate-resilient crops — such as millets, pulses, and oilseeds — can reduce irrigation demand while enhancing nutritional and income outcomes. This would require supportive procurement policies, market access, and awareness campaigns to change both farmer and consumer preferences.

The author is with NCAER. Views expressed are personal and do not reflect the official position or policy of FinancialExpress.com.