The Indian health system is characterized by persistently high levels of out of pocket payment (OOP). Routinely collected national household survey data were unable to clarify two important concerns: 1. The extent to which higher levels of OOP are prevalent in India’s richer states is largely explained by epidemiological differences; 2. Characteristics of OOP across longer, multi-provider care-seeking journeys.
The National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), one of India’s premier economic policy research think tanks, carried out the 133th Round of its Business Expectations Survey (BES) in June 2025. NCAER has been carrying out the BES every quarter since 1992, covering 479 firms across four regions.
Efforts to increase female participation face challenges such as geographical barriers and perceptions about physical work.
India’s solar and wind energy capacity is increasing year on year. According to data released by the Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, between 2022-23 and 2024-25, installed solar energy capacity recorded an average annual growth of 38 per cent, while wind energy capacity grew by 35 per cent. As of May 2025, total cumulative installed capacity stood at 110.8 gigawatts (GW) for solar energy and 51.3 GW for wind energy.
Employment within the renewable energy sector has grown as well. According to Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) data, between 2022-23 and 2023-24, the number of individuals engaged in electric power generation using solar energy increased by 86 per cent and those engaged in generation using other non-conventional sources (including wind energy) increased by 206 per cent.
However, the sectors remain heavily male-dominated, with women making up only a small share of the workforce.
As detailed in an earlier Down To Earth article by the authors, there is no separate industrial classification for the wind electricity sector; it is subsumed under ‘other non-conventional sources’.
From the recent two rounds of PLFS data, we find that women engaged in solar and other non-conventional electricity generation sectors typically do not have formal technical education, though they may acquire non-formal technical or vocational training through on-the-job learning.
Correspondingly, the few women in the sector are largely concentrated in non-technical administrative roles, such as keyboard operators, general office clerks, sales workers and business services and administration managers.
Notably, in terms of employment quality (that is, the benefits offered to female employees), the latest PLFS data (2023-24) show that women employed in these sectors generally have a written job contract and are eligible for paid leave, provident fund, pension or gratuity and health or maternity benefits.
By contrast, technical and engineering-related job roles employ only men. The top male-dominated roles include machinery mechanics and repairers, protective service workers, managing directors and chief executives, electrical equipment installers and repairers, process control technicians and electrotechnology engineers.
Some men are also employed in finance, ICT, other administrative roles, or in low-skilled roles such as elementary workers, drivers, clerks and manufacturing labourers.
NCAER recently conducted a National Skill Gap Study for High Growth Sectors (2025) at the behest of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE), which highlighted such gender gaps. Primary data collected through stakeholder consultations corroborated and supplemented the findings from the secondary data analysis, by:
Stakeholders acknowledged the very limited presence of women in solar and wind electricity generation and noted that the few employed are typically in corporate office-based roles. These include administrative positions (such as accounts, project finance, secretarial and human resources) as well as some technical roles, including engineers (across domains), engineering pre-design, project coordination, management information systems, policy and regulatory work and resource assessment, forecasting, monitoring and scheduling.
An absence of women in on-site roles (at solar and wind farms) was unanimously recognised, particularly for positions requiring extended site stays, such as operation and maintenance (O&M). Stakeholders expressed willingness to promote gender diversity in these core on-site roles, but several challenges persist:
Despite these challenges, some positive developments have emerged. Firms increasingly:
Some firms also reported incentive policies for recruitment agencies when female candidates are hired and the establishment of ‘technical committees’ to encourage women’s participation in technical roles.
Looking ahead, the prospects for increasing women’s employment appear higher in roles related to resource assessment and forecasting, power system design, plant engineering and design and project management. O&M roles in the wind sector may become feasible with the introduction of lifts for turbine access and in both solar and wind sectors as automation and remote diagnostics expand.
Overall, the findings suggest that women’s employment in the green energy sector is formal and well-supported with benefits. With firms actively seeking women across various roles, including technical ones, there are clear returns to formal technical and vocational education if women choose to pursue these pathways.
Isha Dayal is Fellow and Bornali Bhandari is Professor at National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
Views expressed are authors’ own and do not necessarily reflect that of Down To Earth.
The 21st India Policy Forum (IPF) 2024 volume comprises papers and brief details of the proceedings of the IPF Conference held during July 2-3, 2024. In addition to the five papers presented at the IPF in 2024, the Conference included the TN Srinivasan Memorial Lecture, titled, ‘IMF Cracks in the System: How Geo-economic Fragmentation is Reshaping the Global Economy’, delivered by Dr Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas, Chief Economist, IMF. The IPF 2024 also featured several panel discussions, including ‘Digitalisation and Development’; ‘Employment Challenges in India and Beyond’; ‘The Middle-Income Trap’; and ‘India’s Economic Prospects in a Turbulent World’.
2024, Volume 21, Papers
As India forges ahead with its renewable energy goals to combat climate change, the transition away from coal presents a complex economic challenge.
As India forges ahead with its renewable energy goals to combat climate change, the transition away from coal presents a complex economic challenge. While the environmental urgency is clear, the macroeconomic consequences – especially those impacting employment and state finances – carry a weight that policymakers can no longer afford to overlook. Coal has long powered India’s economy, currently generating over 70 per cent of the country’s electricity. For several states, including Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, coal is more than just a fuel – it supports budgets, livelihoods, and local development.
Jharkhand receives nearly 30 per cent of its own tax revenue from fossil fuelbased royalties and levies; Chhattisgarh follows closely. Together with a few other states, they account for most of India’s coal reserves and production, making the transition highly regional in both risk and impact. Moving away from coal will not be cheap. India is estimated to require about $900 billion to $1 trillion over the next three decades to fully steer its power sector away from fossil fuels. Nearly half of that cost will fund nonenergy needs – worker reskilling, land repurposing, livelihood support, and economic diversification.
These are not peripheral concerns; they are essential to making the energy transition socially and economically viable. Employment is where the transition dilemma becomes most immediate. Coal supports the livelihoods of over 13 million people across mining, transport, thermal power, steel, brick kilns, and other linked sectors. Formal employment numbers tell only part of the story. Many workers are hired through contractors or are informally engaged – making them both invisible in official data and vulnerable to job losses. In Jharkhand alone, nearly 300,000 are employed in formal coal work, with at least a million tied indirectly to the industry.
For these workers and their families, coal is far more than an energy source – it is a livelihood, a form of stability in regions where few other opportunities exist. Abrupt coal closures without alternative employment can lead to economic stagnation, deepened inequality, and long-term social stress. The risk isn’t just of stranded assets, but of stranded communities, where entire regions are left behind in the march to net zero. Renewable energy promises jobs – indeed, over a million people were working in India’s renewables sector in 2023, with strong growth expected. By 2030, the sector could generate up to 3.4 million jobs through new solar and wind capacity alone. Yet the shift from coal to clean energy jobs is not automatic.
There’s a skills gap – technical roles in solar and wind require formal training, digital literacy, and experience that most coal workers lack. Additionally, there is a regional gap. Most renewable investments are concentrated in western and southern India – Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka – whereas the coal belt lies in the east and central regions. Even the nature of employment differs. Coal jobs, particularly those in the formal public sector, often offer better wages, benefits, and job security compared to many clean energy roles, which are more contractual and project-based.
Without planned efforts to bridge these gaps – through training, job matching, and wage support – the transition risks leaving workers worse off. Adding to the challenge is the heavy fiscal reliance on coal revenues. Between 2018 and 2023, Jharkhand alone earned nearly Rs 24,000 crore in coal royalties and contributions to mining funds. Chhattisgarh and Odisha followed with over Rs 16,000 crore each. These funds support health, education, infrastructure, and social programmes, and their depletion could undercut development in some of the most underserved districts in the country. Current mechanisms, such as the District Mineral Foundation (DMF) funds, while useful, are insufficient for the scale of transition needed. So far, DMF has accumulated just over $3.7 billion – far short of the $420 billion estimated need for non-energy transition elements. At the same time, India’s financial system remains deeply invested in coal.
Domestic banks have poured nearly $29 billion into coal since 2016, and public sector banks account for the majority of these loans. Realigning capital flows toward clean technologies and transition support will be vital. As India aims to achieve net zero target by 2070, new jobs will emerge in solar installation, EV maintenance, climate resilient agriculture and the circular economy sector. Skilling programmes can address unemployment, improve livelihood and support climate goals simultaneously. To ensure a smooth and inclusive transition, India must invest in large-scale reskilling tailored to the local needs of coal-dependent communities.
Programmes like Suryamitra, Vayumitra, Jal Urja Mitra – focused on solar, wind and small hydro power technician training respectively – are positive initiatives but need to be dramatically scaled up and adapted for broader participation. At the same time, coal-producing states need active support to diversify their economies – whether through green manufacturing, agro-based industries, or services that can generate stable employment. Social protection systems will also need expansion to cover informal workers, offering health coverage, pensions, and income support as they navigate career shifts. Importantly, the fiscal gap left by shrinking coal revenues cannot be ignored. The central government must devise mechanisms – possibly through compensatory transfers or green revenue-sharing models – to stabilize state finances during this transition period.
Without such support, the development gains funded by coal could reverse in many of India’s poorest districts. Finally, the transition must be participatory. Local communities, trade unions, grassroots leaders, and workers must be actively involved in shaping strategies for moving beyond coal. Top-down mandates will not suffice when livelihoods are at stake. India’s coal transition is more than an environmental necessity – it is a macroeconomic test of the country’s ability to align growth, equity, and sustainability. With the right planning and financial commitment, this can be a transformation that uplifts rather than displaces. But failure to address the human and regional aspects of the transition may fracture the very social and economic fabric it seeks to rebuild.
The writers are associated with the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER). Views are personal.