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Irrigation investments yield the best outcomes when paired with timely access to quality seeds, fertilisers, credit, and extension advice.

n India’s agrarian landscape, the relationship between irrigation and cropping decisions has long been treated as linear, where expansion of irrigation infrastructure is expected to lead to changes in cropping patterns, particularly a shift toward more water-intensive and high-value crops. However, empirical evidence from the past decade suggests that this assumption does not hold uniformly. A closer analysis of national agricultural data from 2011-12 to 2022-23 reveals a more dynamic and contemporaneous relationship between irrigation and sowing decisions, with important implications for agricultural policy.

During this 11-year period, India saw a significant increase in both the gross irrigated area (GIA) and gross sown area (GSA). The GIA rose from 91.8 million hectares in 2011-12 to 122.3 million hectares by 2022-23. At the same time, the GSA grew from 195.8 to 219.4 million hectares. This expansion translated into a steady increase in the share of sown area under irrigation — from 46.9% to 55.8%. Crop yields also rose considerably, from 841 kg per acre in 2011-12 to 1,009 kg per acre in 2022-23, indicating an average annual growth rate of 1.67%. These changes suggest not only a quantitative expansion of irrigation but also its qualitative impact in enhancing land productivity.

An analysis of India’s data on total area under irrigation and GSA shows a strong link between the two. When irrigation coverage expanded, sowing activity also increased — especially when both happened in the same year. The connection weakened when there was a time gap between the two; in fact, a two-year lag in irrigation led to a negative relationship. This suggests that farmers typically decide on irrigation and cropping together, based on immediate conditions like rainfall, market prices, input availability, and policy cues — rather than following a fixed step-by-step process.

These findings challenge conventional wisdom in irrigation planning, where infrastructure projects are designed under the assumption that farmers will adapt their cropping choices once assured water becomes available. In practice, farmers make sowing decisions based on the water they can access now — not promises of supply two years into the future. This mismatch can result in underutilised irrigation assets and poor returns on public investment.

For irrigation policy to be effective, it must become more adaptive and time-sensitive. This means moving away from the dominant model of long-gestation, infrastructure-heavy investments that are disconnected from seasonal realities. Instead, irrigation planning and execution must be aligned with sowing calendars and agricultural time frames. Key interventions such as canal desilting, pump set repairs, and water release schedules should be implemented in tune with cropping windows.

Such agility requires institutional reforms. Decentralised governance should be at the heart of this shift. Local bodies, including water user associations and panchayati raj institutions, must be empowered with both autonomy and financial resources to deliver irrigation services suited to their regions. These bodies are best positioned to understand local agro-climatic nuances, cropping preferences, and water availability. A flexible, bottom-up approach will be more efficient and equitable than centrally managed, one-size-fits-all schemes.

Irrigation responsiveness also hinges on data. Real-time decision-making should be supported through better use of technology and information systems. Weather forecasts, soil moisture data, and remote sensing imagery can help predict water demand more accurately and guide allocation decisions. Digital platforms should be used to communicate timely advisories to farmers — ensuring they have the information to coordinate irrigation with other inputs.

Equally critical is input convergence. Farmers typically respond to an ecosystem of support, not just water access. Irrigation investments yield the best outcomes when paired with timely access to quality seeds, fertilisers, credit, and extension advice. Without this integration, irrigation expansion benefits are often muted.

Sustainability must remain a guiding principle in this transformation. While the data shows clear gains in irrigated area and yield, this expansion also places growing pressure on India’s water resources — particularly groundwater, which accounts for nearly two-thirds of total irrigation. The adoption of water-efficient technologies such as drip and sprinkler systems must be scaled up, particularly in water-stressed states. Policymakers should also use behavioural nudges — such as community water budgeting, transparent water accounting, and incentive-based water pricing — to encourage sustainable use.

The issue of cropping choices is also central to water sustainability. Continued reliance on water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane is ecologically costly. Encouraging a shift toward less water-consuming and more climate-resilient crops — such as millets, pulses, and oilseeds — can reduce irrigation demand while enhancing nutritional and income outcomes. This would require supportive procurement policies, market access, and awareness campaigns to change both farmer and consumer preferences.

The author is with NCAER. Views expressed are personal and do not reflect the official position or policy of FinancialExpress.com.  

As the monsoon season nears, cities across India prepare for the same story to play out once again. Flooded streets, stalled traffic, stranded commuters and inundated homes are no longer rare disasters; they are routine. In Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Chennai, the question isn’t if streets will flood but when and how badly. Each year brings the same chaos, the same inconvenience and sometimes tragic loss of life. But while this recurring nightmare is visible to all, the deeper cause remains buried under layers of cement. The core issue is not just outdated drainage; it’s the unchecked concretisation of our cities, which has made them incapable of dealing with even moderate rainfall.

The recurrent urban flooding witnessed in Delhi and other Indian cities is often attributed to ageing or inadequate drainage infrastructure. However, an equally critical and structurally embedded issue is the widespread and escalating concretisation of urban landscapes. In a notable instance last year, Delhi recorded 228 millimetres of rainfall in a single episode, far exceeding the capacity of its drainage system, which was originally designed under a master plan dating back to 1976. While this antiquated plan is undeniably insufficient for the city’s contemporary scale and density, it is the transformation of the ground itself that is compounding the crisis.

Urban expansion has proceeded with little regard for ecological balance. Roads, pavements, central verges and even formerly permeable green spaces have been extensively sealed with concrete. This has drastically reduced the city’s capacity to absorb rainfall through natural infiltration. Where open soil would once have facilitated percolation and groundwater recharge, impervious surfaces now cause water to accumulate and rapidly run off, placing immense pressure on stormwater drains. The consequences are evident: streets flood within minutes, residential areas become impassable, and the risk to life and property increases each year. This pattern is not unique to Delhi. A 2016 report by the Central Water Commission highlighted concretisation as a principal contributor to urban flooding. Yet, despite this, few municipalities have enforced guidelines requiring the inclusion of soak pits or stormwater management in urban construction. Mumbai only adopted mandatory soak pits in 2023, after years of seasonal disruption.

In Bengaluru, widespread flooding of the IT corridor in 2022 disrupted commercial operations. Chennai continues to suffer from water stagnation, despite heavy investment in drainage infrastructure. According to the National Disaster Management Authority, over 45 per cent of urban flooding incidents in the past decade have been linked to drainage failure and excessive surface sealing. In some metropolitan areas, satellite imagery has revealed a reduction of more than 80 per cent in green cover. Without a systemic shift towards permeable urban design and coordinated governance, Indian cities will remain vulnerable. The excessive use of concrete is not merely a design flaw but a foundational threat to urban resilience.

Global cities facing similar challenges have demonstrated that urban flooding can be effectively managed through integrated, nature-based approaches. China’s Sponge City initiative treats urban landscapes as dynamic, absorptive systems, using green roofs, permeable pavements, and wetlands to retain rainwater before it becomes a hazard. Cities like Wuhan and Shenzhen have set ambitious targets to absorb 70 per cent of rainfall by 2030. Berlin has institutionalised such strategies by requiring all new developments to follow sponge city principles. Parks function as temporary floodplains, roads are constructed with porous materials, and rain gardens are embedded in urban infrastructure. Singapore’s ABC Waters programme exemplifies the synergy between engineering and ecology, combining extensive drainage networks with vegetated swales and retention ponds. These interventions have reduced floodprone zones from 3,200 hectares in the 1970s to just 49 hectares.

Each of these cities demonstrates that proactive, ecologically integrated planning is not only feasible but essential in the face of climate volatility. India need not start from scratch but must urgently adapt these lessons to its own urban context. The foremost priority is restoring permeability to urban surfaces. Roads, pavements and open areas should use porous materials, and features such as soak pits and bioswales must become standard practice, not optional elements. Guidelines already exist under the Indian Roads Congress but suffer from weak enforcement. Detailed hydrological mapping should guide city planning, ensuring that natural water flows and flood prone areas are respected. Urban development must move away from fragmented governance toward coordinated action, ideally through unified flood management authorities.

Finally, green infrastructure must be treated as essential civic investment, integrated into budgets not as beautification, but as critical resilience building for a rapidly urbanising, climate-stressed nation. Flooding is not just about clogged drains; it reflects deeper failures in how we build and govern our cities. It disrupts daily life, endangers health, and undermines dignity. Indian cities must stop treating floods as natural disasters and start seeing them as preventable outcomes of poor planning. A shift toward nature-based, climate sensitive design is not just necessary. It is the only way our cities can cope, recover, and thrive.

The writers are associated with the National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi. Views are personal and do not necessarily represent the opinions of the NCAER.